A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss, spatial disorientation, cognitive dysfunction, and behavioral changes. The pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease include amyloid-beta plaques, tau tangles, and reduced brain glucose uptake. Most cases of Alzheimer's disease do not run in families and are described as "sporadic." The primary risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease is aging, with prevalence roughly doubling every five years after age 65. Roughly one-third of people aged 85 and older have Alzheimer's. The major genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's is a variant in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene called APOE4.

Star-shaped cells found in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes facilitate neurotransmission, provide nutrients to neurons, maintain neuronal ion balance, and support the blood-brain barrier. Astrocytes also play a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injuries.

A highly selective semi-permeable barrier in the brain made up of endothelial cells connected by tight junctions. The blood-brain barrier separates the circulating blood from the brain's extracellular fluid in the central nervous system. Whereas water, lipid-soluble molecules, and some gases can pass through the blood-brain barrier via passive diffusion, molecules such as glucose and amino acids that are crucial to neural function enter via selective transport. The barrier prevents the entry of lipophilic substances that may be neurotoxic via an active transport mechanism.

Any of a group of complex proteins or conjugated proteins that are produced by living cells and act as catalyst in specific biochemical reactions.

A molecule composed of carboxylic acid with a long hydrocarbon chain that is either saturated or unsaturated. Fatty acids are important components of cell membranes and are key sources of fuel because they yield large quantities of ATP when metabolized. Most cells can use either glucose or fatty acids for this purpose.

A neurotransmitter produced in the brain that blocks impulses between nerve cells. GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in gray matter.

A survival mechanism the brain relies on during starvation. Glucose sparing occurs when the body utilizes fatty acids as its primary fuel and produces ketone bodies. The ketone bodies cross the blood-brain barrier and are used instead of glucose, thereby “sparing” glucose for use in other metabolic pathways, such as the pentose-phosphate pathway, which produces NADPH. NADPH is essential for the production of glutathione, one of the major antioxidants used in the body and brain.

Facilitates the transport of glucose across the cell membrane of skeletal muscles and adipose tissue cells, thereby removing glucose from the bloodstream.

An amino acid found in high concentration in every part of the body. In the nervous system, glutamate is by a wide margin the most abundant neurotransmitter in humans. It is used by every major excitatory information-transmitting pathway in the vertebrate brain, accounting in total for well over 90% of the synaptic connections in the human brain.

An enzyme that catalyzes the decarboxylation of glutamate into GABA, using vitamin B6 as a cofactor.

Abnormally low blood glucose. Hypoglycemia can occur due to low glycogen stores, diabetes medications, or other drugs. Maternal alcohol consumption can cause hypoglycemia in breastfed infants. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include confusion, heart palpitations, shakiness, and anxiety.

Condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body.

A diet that causes the body to oxidize fat to produce ketones for energy. A ketogenic diet is low in carbohydrates and high in proteins and fats. For many years, the ketogenic diet has been used in the clinical setting to reduce seizures in children. It is currently being investigated for the treatment of traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's disease, weight loss, and cancer.

Molecules (often simply called “ketones”) produced by the liver during the breakdown of fatty acids. Ketone production occurs during periods of low food intake (fasting), carbohydrate restrictive diets, starvation, or prolonged intense exercise. There are three types of ketone bodies: acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone. Ketone bodies are readily used as energy by a diverse array of cell types, including neurons.

Lactate is thought to participate in a sort of "lactate shuttle" where, after being produced in muscle from exercise, it is transported in to tissues like the heart, and brain, where it is used as an energy source. Lactate is one of many molecules that falls under a loose group of molecules referred to as exerkines, a broad group of exercise-induced hormonal-like factors. Evidence suggests that lactate is the preferred fuel of the brain. Additionally, rodent studies suggest that lactate mediates some of the benefits of exercise on learning and memory via inducing neuronal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression.^[1] In clinical studies, lactate shows promise as a treatment for inflammatory conditions including traumatic brain injury and as a means to deliver fuel to working muscles.

A class of saturated fats. Medium-chain triglycerides are composed of medium-length fatty acid chains (six to 12 carbons long) bound by a glycerol backbone. They occur naturally in coconut oil, palm oil, and butter, but they can also be synthesized in a laboratory or food processing setting. Evidence suggests that MCT therapy improves cognitive function in older adults with Alzheimer's disease.^[1] Examples of MCTs include caprylic acid (C8), capric acid (C10), and lauric acid (C12).

The thousands of biochemical processes that run all of the various cellular processes that produce energy. Since energy generation is so fundamental to all other processes, in some cases the word metabolism may refer more broadly to the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell.

One of the enzymes involved in the process of converting pyruvate, which is derived from glucose, into energy in the form of ATP inside of the mitochondria.

Damage to the brain caused by a sudden blow, penetrating injury, or lack of oxygen, ranging from mild to severe. TBIs can induce a wide range of short- or long-term changes in the brain that affect thinking, sensation, language, personality, and emotion. In addition, TBI may increase the risk for developing epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and other brain disorders. Nearly 75 percent of TBIs that occur each year are concussions or other forms of mild TBI. Even mild TBIs damage the delicate tissues and blood vessels of the brain and can result in altered brain function that can persist for days, weeks, or months. Approximately 15 percent of concussed athletes experience symptoms as long as one year after their injury, a condition called persistent post-concussion syndrome, or PPCS, typically after returning to play too quickly.