Star-shaped cells found in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes facilitate neurotransmission, provide nutrients to neurons, maintain neuronal ion balance, and support the blood-brain barrier. Astrocytes also play a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injuries.

A chemical produced in the liver via the breakdown of fatty acids. Beta-hydroxybutyrate is a type of ketone body. It can be used to produce energy inside the mitochondria and acts as a signaling molecule that alters gene expression by inhibiting a class of enzymes known as histone deacetylases.

A survival mechanism the brain relies on during starvation. Glucose sparing occurs when the body utilizes fatty acids as its primary fuel and produces ketone bodies. The ketone bodies cross the blood-brain barrier and are used instead of glucose, thereby “sparing” glucose for use in other metabolic pathways, such as the pentose-phosphate pathway, which produces NADPH. NADPH is essential for the production of glutathione, one of the major antioxidants used in the body and brain.

An antioxidant compound produced by the body’s cells. Glutathione helps prevent damage from oxidative stress caused by the production of reactive oxygen species.

Lactate is thought to participate in a sort of "lactate shuttle" where, after being produced in muscle from exercise, it is transported in to tissues like the heart, and brain, where it is used as an energy source. Lactate is one of many molecules that falls under a loose group of molecules referred to as exerkines, a broad group of exercise-induced hormonal-like factors. Evidence suggests that lactate is the preferred fuel of the brain. Additionally, rodent studies suggest that lactate mediates some of the benefits of exercise on learning and memory via inducing neuronal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression.^[1] In clinical studies, lactate shows promise as a treatment for inflammatory conditions including traumatic brain injury and as a means to deliver fuel to working muscles.

A result of oxidative metabolism, which causes damage to DNA, lipids, proteins, mitochondria, and the cell. Oxidative stress occurs through the process of oxidative phosphorylation (the generation of energy) in mitochondria. It can also result from the generation of hypochlorite during immune activation.

An alternate pathway for the oxidation of glucose. The pentose phosphate pathway parallels glycolysis, but does not require or produce ATP; rather, it produces NADPH, which is necessary to create the cellular antioxidant glutathione. Like glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway occurs in the cytoplasm.

One of the enzymes involved in the process of converting pyruvate, which is derived from glucose, into energy in the form of ATP inside of the mitochondria.

Oxygen-containing chemically-reactive molecules generated by oxidative phosphorylation and immune activation. ROS can damage cellular components, including lipids, proteins, mitochondria, and DNA. Examples of ROS include: peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and singlet oxygen.

A related byproduct, reactive nitrogen species, is also produced naturally by the immune system. Examples of RNS include nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and nitrogen dioxide.

The two species are often collectively referred to as ROS/RNS. Preventing and efficiently repairing damage from ROS (oxidative stress) and RNS (nitrosative stress) are among the key challenges our cells face in their fight against diseases of aging, including cancer.

Damage to the brain caused by a sudden blow, penetrating injury, or lack of oxygen, ranging from mild to severe. TBIs can induce a wide range of short- or long-term changes in the brain that affect thinking, sensation, language, personality, and emotion. In addition, TBI may increase the risk for developing epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and other brain disorders. Nearly 75 percent of TBIs that occur each year are concussions or other forms of mild TBI. Even mild TBIs damage the delicate tissues and blood vessels of the brain and can result in altered brain function that can persist for days, weeks, or months. Approximately 15 percent of concussed athletes experience symptoms as long as one year after their injury, a condition called persistent post-concussion syndrome, or PPCS, typically after returning to play too quickly.